PAPAL HISTORY composite image from Inquirer stock
MANILA, Philippines — For nearly two millennia, the papacy has shaped world history, standing at the intersection of faith, politics, and power.
From its humble beginnings with St. Peter to its modern incarnation as a global spiritual authority, the office of the Pope has seen both saints and sinners, reformers and warmongers.
The papacy’s history is one of triumph, scandal, and intrigue, reflecting the Church’s enduring role in shaping civilizations, confronting crises, and navigating complex moral and political dilemmas.
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The five eras of the Papacy
- Early Papacy: The church under fire
Christianity was once an outlawed faith, and the first Popes led their followers in secrecy, facing brutal persecution from the Roman Empire. Many early Popes, such as Pope Clement I and Pope Sixtus II, were martyred for their faith.
A turning point came with Emperor Constantine’s Edict of Milan (313 AD), which legalized Christianity and allowed the Church to flourish. By the time of the First Council of Nicaea (325 AD), the Bishop of Rome had begun gaining influence, laying the foundation for what would become the papacy.
- Medieval Papacy: The church as a kingdom
With the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, the Pope became a central figure in European politics.
Pope Gregory I (590–604 AD) played a key role in stabilizing Rome, organizing aid for the poor, and spreading Christianity to Germanic tribes. Over time, Popes ruled vast territories known as the Papal States, turning the Church into a political powerhouse.
However, the papacy was not without turmoil. The Great Schism (1054) permanently split Christianity into the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches.
Later, the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377), during which the Pope was moved to France under the influence of French monarchs, weakened the papacy’s credibility. The Western Schism (1378–1417) further divided Christendom, with multiple claimants to the papal throne vying for legitimacy.
Renaissance and Reformation Papacy: Art and corruption
The Renaissance Popes, including Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and Pope Leo X (1513–1521), were great patrons of the arts, funding masterpieces like Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel ceiling.
However, their extravagance and the widespread selling of indulgences — payments for the forgiveness of sins — sparked Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation in 1517.
The Church responded with the Counter-Reformation, reaffirming its doctrines at the Council of Trent (1545–1563) while attempting to curb corruption.
- Modern Papacy: Loss of power, gain of influence
By the 19th century, the Pope had lost control of the Papal States due to Italy’s unification. Pope Pius XI signed the Lateran Treaty of 1929, which established Vatican City as an independent state. This marked a shift from territorial rule to moral and spiritual authority.
The 20th century saw Popes navigate major global crises. Pope Pius XII (1939–1958) during World War II and Pope John XXIII (1958–1963) initiated the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), which modernized the Church’s approach to worship and engagement with the world.
- Contemporary Papacy: The Pope in a globalized world
Today, the papacy serves as a spiritual and diplomatic force.
Pope John Paul II (1978–2005) played a key role in the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, while Pope Francis (2013–present) focused on social justice, climate change, and economic inequality, often breaking from tradition to address modern global issues.
Popes who resigned
Traditionally, the Pope is expected to serve for life, symbolizing Christ’s unwavering presence at the helm of the Church. However, history has seen rare cases where Popes have voluntarily stepped down, often under extraordinary circumstances.
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- Pope Celestine V (1294): A devout hermit who was elected Pope against his will. Overwhelmed by the burdens of the office, he abdicated within five months, retreating to monastic life.
- Pope Gregory XII (1415): Resigned to end the Western Schism, a period of division in the Church when multiple rival Popes claimed legitimacy. His departure helped restore unity under a single pontiff.
- : Citing advanced age and deteriorating health, he became the first Pope in nearly 600 years to . His resignation was historic, as he continued to live in the Vatican, coexisting with his successor, Pope Francis.
Longest-serving Popes
While some Popes served only a few months or years, others remained in office for decades, leaving an indelible mark on Church history.
Their long reigns were often a result of strong leadership, political stability, and, sometimes, the sheer longevity of the individual Pope. The list of some of the longest-serving Popes include:
- Pope Pius IX (1846–1878): 31 years — The longest-reigning Pope in history, Pius IX led the Church through one of its most turbulent eras. His tenure saw the dramatic transformation of the papacy from a territorial ruler to a spiritual leader after the loss of the Papal States to the newly unified Italy.
Despite his long reign, Pius IX was a controversial figure, often seen as rigid and opposed to modernization. Yet, his papacy cemented the spiritual independence of the Pope, shifting the role of the papacy away from political rule and toward moral leadership.
- Pope John Paul II (1978–2005): 26 years — One of the most beloved Popes in modern history, was the first non-Italian Pope in over 450 years and played a key role in shaping world events, particularly in the fight against communism.
John Paul II’s long tenure was partly due to his strong health in his early years and the that kept him influential even as he battled Parkinson’s disease in his later years.
- Pope Leo XIII (1878–1903): 25 years — Succeeding Pius IX, Pope Leo XIII is best remembered for bringing the Church into the modern age, particularly by addressing the growing divide between labor and capitalism.
Based on historical accounts, Leo XIII was able to serve for so long because he focused on diplomacy and dialogue rather than political battles. His ability to adapt to modern times without radically altering Church doctrine helped him maintain stability throughout his reign.
- Pope Pius VI (1775–1799): 24 years — Pius VI faced some of the most severe challenges to papal authority, particularly during the French Revolution, which led to the Pope being arrested and exiled by Napoleon’s forces.
Historians noted that Pius VI’s papacy demonstrated that even a long-serving Pope could face profound political and personal hardships, and his struggles foreshadowed the eventual loss of the Papal States in the 19th century.
- Pope Adrian I (772–795): 23 years — Adrian I served during the early medieval period and played a key role in strengthening ties between the papacy and the Frankish Empire, particularly with Charlemagne.
Hadrian’s long papacy was due to strong alliances with secular rulers who ensured his continued leadership and the relative stability of his time compared to later, more turbulent eras.
Antipopes: The rival Popes
At various points in history, political interference, Church conflicts, and internal divisions have led to the emergence of antipopes—rival claimants to the papacy who were elected by factions opposed to the reigning Pope.
Antipopes often emerged during times of political upheaval, some of them wielded considerable influence, shaping Church politics and causing long-lasting divisions. Among the key events and figures include:
- The Western Schism (1378–1417): One of the most infamous periods in papal history, during which rival Popes ruled from Rome, Avignon, and even Pisa, confusing and dividing Christendom for decades.
- Antipope Clement VII (1378–1394): A leading figure in the Western Schism, supported by France and other European monarchs against the legitimate Roman Pope.
- Antipope Benedict XIII (1394–1423): Refused to step down even after losing support, prolonging the crisis until the Council of Constance (1414–1418) restored unity.
Popes who led armies in conquest
While the Pope is traditionally seen as a spiritual leader, history has seen several pontiffs who took a decidedly militaristic approach to their rule, leading armies into battle and engaging in territorial conflicts.
According to The March of Folly, the Renaissance period saw a particularly stark blending of the papacy with secular power, as popes sought to expand and defend their temporal domains, including:
- Pope Julius II (1503–1513): The warrior Pope — One of the most well-known warrior popes, Julius II, was deeply involved in military campaigns. American historian and journalist Barbara Tuchman noted that Julius II envisioned himself as the liberator of Italy, rallying troops under the cry, “Fuori i barbari!” (“Out with the barbarians!”) as he sought to drive out foreign forces from the Italian peninsula.
He personally donned armor and led campaigns to reclaim lost papal territories, solidifying his reputation as a military-minded pontiff. His formation of the Holy League, which included Spain and Venice, demonstrated his commitment to securing Italy’s independence from French control.
However, critics — including Erasmus — questioned the contradiction between the Pope’s spiritual role and his military ambitions, famously asking, “What have the helmet and mitre in common?”
- Pope Leo X (1513–1521): Waging war for family interests — Pope Leo X, a Medici, followed in Julius II’s footsteps in terms of military aggression. He sought to consolidate power by seizing the Duchy of Urbino for his nephew, Lorenzo de’ Medici, engaging in an expensive and ultimately ruinous campaign.
His focus on family enrichment led to an excommunication of the ruling duke and the imposition of heavy taxation across the Papal States to finance the war. The endeavor drained the Vatican’s treasury, contributing to the financial instability that later fueled the Protestant Reformation.
- Pope Clement VII (1523–1534): A miscalculated war — Pope Clement VII found himself caught in the power struggles of Europe, aligning with France and other states in the War of the League of Cognac (1526–1530) against the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. His decision to oppose Charles V ultimately backfired when Imperial forces, including unpaid mercenaries, sacked Rome in 1527.
Tuchman stressed that Clement’s strategic failures and his reluctance to defend the city left Rome vulnerable to one of its most devastating attacks.
The repeated military ventures of popes in the Renaissance era had lasting consequences. As noted by Tuchman in The March of Folly, the papacy became deeply entangled in European wars, often at the cost of its spiritual authority.
Despite their military exploits, these popes ultimately failed to create a lasting and stable papal monarchy. Their wars may have won temporary territorial gains, but they also weakened the Vatican’s moral standing and financial stability, fueling internal and external crises that would shape the course of Church history.
The most popular and the most infamous Popes
Some Popes have been widely loved and admired for their moral courage, reforms, and compassionate leadership:
- Pope John Paul II (1978–2005): Played a key role in ending communism in Eastern Europe, promoted interfaith dialogue, and was canonized as a saint.
- Pope Francis (2013–present): Known for his focus on , environmental advocacy, and inclusivity, breaking from rigid traditions to engage with modern issues.
- Pope John XXIII (1958–1963): Launched the Second Vatican Council, modernizing the Church and emphasizing a more open, pastoral approach to faith.
However, not all Popes have been models of virtue — some were outright tyrants, corrupt, or scandalous:
- Pope Stephen VI (896–897): Conducted the Cadaver Synod, putting the corpse of Pope Formosus on trial in one of the most grotesque episodes in Church history.
- Pope Benedict IX (1032–1048): One of the youngest Popes ever, infamous for his debauchery, corruption, and selling the papacy.
- Pope Alexander VI (1492–1503): The Borgia Pope, infamous for nepotism, bribery, and fathering multiple illegitimate children while in office.
- Pope Julius II (1503–1513): More of a military commander than a spiritual leader, he personally led armies into battle to expand papal territories.
Scandals involving wealth, power, and lust
While many Popes have been beacons of faith and moral authority, the history of the papacy is not without its darker chapters. Corruption, greed, and even immorality have plagued certain pontiffs.
- Simony: The practice of selling church offices and sacred roles for personal gain. This was particularly rampant during the Middle Ages.
- Nepotism: Many Popes elevated family members to high positions in the Church, ensuring dynastic control over religious and political power.
- The Selling of the Papacy: Some Popes literally bought and sold the papal throne, as in the case of Pope Benedict IX, who resigned, reclaimed, and then sold the papacy again.
- The Borgia Popes: The Borgia family, particularly Pope Alexander VI, was notorious for using bribery, political assassination, and open corruption to consolidate power.
More recently, the Catholic Church has faced global scandals involving clergy abuse, with evidence of decades-long cover-ups by Church leadership. Pope Francis has taken a more active stance on addressing these crises, but many believe structural reforms are still needed to fully restore trust.
The cadaver synod: A dead Pope put on trial
Perhaps the most bizarre episode in papal history, the Cadaver Synod (897 AD) saw Pope Stephen VI exhuming the body of his predecessor, Pope Formosus, and putting him on a posthumous trial.
The decaying corpse, dressed in papal robes, was accused of perjury and stripped of its titles before being thrown into the Tiber River.
Le Pape Formose et Étienne VI (“Pope Formosus and Stephen VI”) by Jean-Paul Laurens, 1870. Image from Wikimedia Commons.
Some accounts report that Stephen VI ordered the corpse of his predecessor to have three fingers of his right hand amputated — symbolically severing the blessing hand used for consecrations — before having the body reburied in a common grave.
The grotesque spectacle shocked the Church and led to instability within the papacy, ultimately leading to Stephen VI’s swift downfall.
The female Pope: Fact or fiction?
One of the most debated legends in papal history is that of Pope Joan, a woman who allegedly disguised herself as a man and was elected Pope in the 9th century.
According to the tale, she was only discovered when she gave birth in public. While most historians dismiss this as medieval fiction, the story persists, capturing imaginations for centuries.
Graphics by Ed Lustan/Inquirer.net. Sources: Encyclopædia Britannica, Wikimedia Commons, news archive